Manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 | Pathophysiological cell functions of midkine | Reference |
---|---|---|
Pulmonary inflammation | • Recruitment of inflammatory cells • Cytokine release from neutrophils and macrophages • Enhancement of fibrinolytic activity | Takada 1997 [11] Wang 2008 [41] Zhang 2015 [47] Misa 2017 [48] |
Pulmonary hypoxia | • Inducing hypoxia via inflammation • Binding of HIF1-α to hypoxia-responsive elements located in the MK promoter | Eltzschig 2011 [21] Minamino 2001 [23] Cramer 2003 [25] Walmsley 2005 [26] |
Pulmonary fibrosis, ARDS | • Regulating inflammatory cell migration into the lung and induction of TNF-α and TGF-β expression • MK–RAS pathway | Zhang 2015 [47] Misa 2017 [48] You 2008 [44] Hobo 2009 [12] |
Pulmonary RAS dysregulation | • Increasing pathophysiological actions of Ang II via expression of ACE | Hobo 2009 [12] |